Recovering Deschutes Basin Steelhead — Part 1
By Alex Hardison, Communications Manager
Deschutes steelhead. Illustration: Joseph Tomelleri
The steelhead trout is one of the Pacific Northwest’s most iconic species of fish. Historically, thriving steelhead populations were present throughout the Deschutes Basin, where these fish carry significant ecological, economic, and cultural values. But in less than a century, the impacts of irrigation, hydropower projects, and other human activities have disrupted the natural water systems and conditions that sustained these fish for millenia. With severely altered habitat and new challenges to migration, steelhead populations have fallen dramatically.
In this series, we’re exploring the history of steelhead in the Deschutes Basin, the impacts irrigation and development have had on this species and their habitat, the actions water managers and regulators are proposing to address threats to this species, and whether they go far enough to restore the critical habitat this iconic species needs and deserves.
An Aquatic Icon
Baking beneath an early-summer sun, along the verdant west bank of the Deschutes River, we made our careful approach toward the shimmering water before us.
The river’s famously-large salmon flies scaled tall streamside grasses while mayflies and other freshly-hatched winged insects whirred overhead – an entomological buffet for the keen-eyed aquatic insectivores watching fastidiously beneath the surface.
Alysia and Elke Littleleaf of the Warm Springs fly fishing outfit Littleleaf Guides were our angling shepherds for the afternoon. This husband and wife duo are both Warm Springs Tribal members, passionate advocates for the river, and expert fishing guides. A lifetime of experience along these banks and deep ancestral knowledge about the Deschutes, passed down since time immemorial, has taught them exactly where to find what we were looking for.
With deft precision, they led us to specific undercut banks, deep pools, and undulating riffles that were likely to harbor one particularly compelling species of fish we hoped to encounter — currently hungry for a snack from above.
Based on the conditions that afternoon, Alysia knew exactly which fly pattern would present a convincing bite to the would-be diners below. She selected a large, natural looking dry fly and nimbly tied it to the end of my line.
Ready to go at last, Alysia instructed me to climb down to a narrow opening between streamside trees and cast out into a shady pool beneath the overhanging vegetation. A quick flick of the wrist sent the bundle of orange string and carefully arranged elk hair wound around a barbless metal chassis that curved to a sharpened point through the warm air and onto the river’s cool surface with a gentle splash.
Redband trout and steelhead are the same species of fish (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Photo: Michael Humling / USFWS
In a flash, a tremendous silvery creature erupted from the depths and devoured the humble offering. Lifting the rod with my right hand and taking up slack with my left, I set the hook and could feel the enormous strength of life at the end of my line.
This was Oncorhynchus mykiss. In the Deschutes Basin, this species is commonly known as both the region’s resident redband trout and the larger, ocean-going steelhead trout. We were on the Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs side of the Deschutes River with the Littleleafs to better understand the latter, and how, over millennia, steelhead have come to bear crucial significance for human communities.
Adult steelhead make a remarkable journey from the Pacific Ocean back to the same freshwater streams they were born in to spawn. Photo: Michael Humling / USFWS
Steelhead are interwoven with Tribal cultures, economies, and ways of life that depend on and steward a balance of sustainable coexistence. Warm Springs individuals like Alysia and Elke and other Indigenous peoples across Oregon and the entire Pacific Northwest have relied on steelhead as one of their First Foods since time immemorial.
“Plenty of elders down here [on the Warm Springs Reservation] grew up on a steelhead and trout for breakfast diet,” Alysia explained. “Anytime we catch steelhead in the fall, we always give it to an elder or a family in need. We’re always trying to give back to our community in one way or form.”
"Salmon and steelhead are particularly significant and carry incredible value, not just to the people, but to the Columbia River Basin ecosystem as a whole." (Excerpted from amicus curiae brief submitted to the Oregon Court of Appeals by the Columbia River Treaty Tribes on 1 March 2024). Photo: Ryan Hagerty / USFWS
Historically, thriving steelhead populations were present throughout the Deschutes Basin, where these fish still carry significant ecological, economic, and cultural values. But today, steelhead numbers have declined to a small fraction of what they once were, and many challenges exist for improving critical habitat and ensuring steelhead remain an abiding part of the Basin’s future.
Alysia told me how they “were shut down for a couple of seasons for steelhead — so their numbers could rebound. And that hurt — not only as a business, but as Natives. It hurt on that deeper level of cultural significance, because that's one of our First Foods.”
In order to take steps toward recovering steelhead habitat and populations, it is important to better understand their fascinating life histories and the environmental conditions these fish have relied on and been sustained by in the Deschutes Basin.
Steelhead undergo dramatic changes over the course of their fascinating underwater lives due to various biological and environmental stimuli. Photo: Ryan Hagerty / USFWS
Steelhead Life History
From humble freshwater beginnings, these fish become renowned aquatic pilgrims, embarking on remarkable journeys of ancient migration to the Pacific Ocean and back again, sometimes more than once, over the course of their lives. Steelhead can grow to massive sizes, undergo striking changes in coloration and physiology during different stages of life, and have developed evolutionary adaptations that afford them distinct advantages over other fish in the region.
Biology & Physiology
Life for these aquatic icons begins in clear, cool freshwater streams and tributaries. Steelhead in the Deschutes Basin are known as “summer steelhead,” with adults returning to freshwater and beginning their migration up the river system between June and October. They remain in the Basin and spawn between the middle of March and the end of May. Depending on water temperature, eggs hatch within five to seven weeks.
At this point, what will (hopefully) one day become a silvery underwater torpedo is little more than a small node within a cluster of bright orange eggs tucked into a riverine gravel nest called a “redd.” After hatching, the young “alevins” remain close to the redd for several weeks before fully absorbing their yolk sac — at which point they become “fry” — and venturing off to explore new extents of the freshwater streams they were born in.
Steelhead spawning is largely a numbers game. On average, adult female steelhead lay approximately 5,000 eggs when spawning — but it might be up to 10,000. However, only 20 to 30 percent of fertilized eggs survive to become fry, and just 3 percent of fry can be expected to reach adulthood.
Juvenile O. mykiss with prominent “parr marks” — uniform black spots — along the red lateral line. Illustration: Joseph Tomelleri
Next, juvenile steelhead called “parr” grow for one to four years and depend on sufficient instream flows for their survival during this crucial phase of life. After one to two years, instinct and environmental stimuli compel the intrepid young fish to embark on an age-old migration, hundreds of miles downstream, to the vast marine expanse of the Pacific Ocean.
Post-smolt steelhead with oceanic coloration. Illustration: Joseph Tomelleri
In order to adapt to the Pacific’s saltwater environment, a fascinating process called smoltification ensues. This describes the physiological changes juvenile steelhead undergo which prepare them to make the transition from freshwater to saltwater environments during their downstream migration. Through hormonal changes, smoltification increases salinity tolerance and metabolism, influences migratory behavior, and supercharges olfactory (smell) imprinting. Smoltification is triggered by water temperatures that are typically associated with increased seasonal streamflows, which also helps migrating fish survive by reducing the risk of predation.
Alysia Littleleaf with a tremendous steelhead.
Upon reaching the Pacific Ocean, steelhead grow rapidly. Their dorsal coloration darkens and acquires a more intense bluish hue to improve oceanic camouflage. Fully-grown steelhead returning to the Deschutes from sea transport abundant nutrition back to Basin that will eventually feed regional wildlife, and present a formidable challenge to regional anglers who succeed in enticing them with rod and reel.
Alysia told us that “steelhead are one of the hardest species to target. It takes the most patience, lots of experience, lots of practice, and lots of mistakes to learn how to dial it in. That’s why it’s one of my personal favorites. It requires your 100% focus, 100% respect, and 100% patience.”
Most steelhead returning to the Deschutes and its tributaries are thought to be around four years old. Photo: John McMillan / Oregon State University
Anadro—What?
After one or two years spent at sea, adult steelhead embark on their return migration to the freshwater streams they were born in order to spawn the next generation of iconic swimmers.
Fish that are born in freshwater streams, migrate to marine environments, and then return to spawn in their natal streams are classified as anadromous.
An adult steelhead swimming upstream en route to spawning grounds. Photo: USFWS
Anadromous comes from the Latinized form of the Greek roots ana, which means “up or upward,” and dromos, which means “running” — as in steelhead and salmon returning from the sea and “running up” river systems to spawn.
Scientists believe that anadromous fish rely on a remarkably strong sense of smell to detect and follow pheromones in the aquatic environment back to the same streams they and their parents were born in. Olfactory imprinting during smoltification is essential to the success of migrating fish returning to spawn.
The Native “Redband” Trout of Central Oregon
In the Deschutes Basin, the native subspecies of O. mykiss is O. m. gairdneri, the Columbia River “redband” trout — defined by signature red streaks extending down its sides in vibrant fashion.
However, a century of hatchery stocking has introduced the subspecies O. m. irideus (coastal rainbow trout) throughout the native range of the redband and led to extensive hybridization.
As a result, few populations of genetically pure gairdneri remain.
Illustration: Joseph Tomelleri
Trout or Salmon?
Anadromy is the defining difference between steelhead and their familiar freshwater counterpart, the redband trout. Surprisingly, steelhead and redband trout are actually the same species of fish (Oncorhynchus mykiss).
Simply put, steelhead trout are an anadromous variant of O. mykiss. And while conventional taxonomy and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s technical definition of steelhead classify them as trout, their behavioral characteristics, physical appearance, and life cycle are strikingly similar to those of the five species of Pacific salmon — chinook, sockeye, coho, pink, and chum.
A remarkable trait that sets steelhead apart from Pacific salmon is their unique ability to reproduce multiple times over the course of their lives. Pacific salmon spawn once at the end of their life cycle before dying, decomposing, and delivering a crucial influx of key nutrients to the ecosystem. Additionally, unlike Pacific salmon, steelhead have evolved the ability to live in both freshwater and saltwater environments as adults, which is key to their ability to reproduce multiple times.
However, due to the long journey from the Pacific Ocean and the numerous manmade obstacles anadromous fish contend with during migration, Middle and Upper Columbia steelhead, including Deschutes steelhead, are rarely repeat spawning “kelts.”
Steelhead have the ability to survive — and thrive — in freshwater as adults. Photo: Tim Green
Ecological Plasticity of O. mykiss
O. mykiss’ distinct life history forms help guard the species from extinction due to changing conditions by allowing it to take advantage of a wide range of freshwater and saltwater habitats.
O. mykiss’ two distinct life history strategies are ecologically significant. The ability to live in both freshwater and marine environments has enabled O. mykiss to thrive under variable environmental conditions related to water quality and quantity, allowing the species to take advantage of different habitats and conditions that other native fish cannot.
The life history form expressed by O. mykiss in a given river system is partially dependent on the ecological and hydrological conditions in the river. Deschutes Basin streams with relatively stable and healthy year-round conditions tend to produce resident redband. For example, the stability of the spring-fed Metolius River favors the redband trout’s life history — so much so that it appears steelhead did not historically take advantage of the Metolius system.
Other Basin tributaries affected by seasonal instabilities such as low water or high temperatures are more likely to spur juvenile O. mykiss to smolt and become steelhead. Trout Creek exhibits highly variable seasonal conditions and is inhabited almost exclusively by steelhead.
Some systems like the Lower Deschutes support both life history forms, where there is likely interbreeding between redband and steelhead. This is an ecological backstop that helps the species survive changing conditions. Loss of one life history form could severely compromise the species’ ability to cope with future environmental changes — such as climate change. The “partial anadromy” of O. mykiss — whereby this fish can assume different life history strategies (anadromous or resident) — is believed to increase this species resistance to extinction.
The Littleleafs guide along 39 miles of Warm Springs land and water, with excellent views from the Deschutes River and exceptional fishing opportunities.
No Catch, Just Release
Back on the bank of the Deschutes, in a flurry of adrenaline, I felt the fish at the end of my line rocket out toward the center of the river before leaping and spitting the fly — that deceitful morsel — in one fell swoop of liberation. The taut sensation of the line ceased, but the rush of the encounter and vivid image of the fish surging up to munch the fly was invigorating.
Ready to try my luck at the next spot, I went to find the Littleleafs. I was eager to tell them about the lunker (big fish) I wasn’t even close to catching, and hoping that another chance to tango with — and, ideally, land — one was in store for the afternoon.
Walking upstream, I wondered how the redband I had momentarily grappled with and its seafaring steelhead counterpart would have experienced the Deschutes Basin just 100 years ago.
Historical Deschutes Basin Habitat
This map from the Deschutes Basin Habitat Conservation Plan illustrates the current and historical distribution of steelhead in the Basin. Click map to expand view.
Historical steelhead populations swam and spawned throughout the entire mainstem Deschutes to the natural barrier for upstream migration of anadromous fish at Big Falls. The lesser-known Big Falls is located between the popular hiking locale Steelhead Falls and the City of Redmond, 36 river miles upstream from where we were fishing with the Littleleafs.
In addition to the mainstem Deschutes, steelhead extended west into Whychus Creek up toward the Cascades and east into the Crooked River and its tributaries that meander through the forests and grasslands of the Ochoco Mountains.
Ample habitat allowed steelhead populations to grow to abundant historical numbers throughout the unobstructed tributaries of the Deschutes Basin. Before dams, the Columbia River Basin and its subbasins like the Deschutes supported some of the largest salmon and steelhead runs in the world, with an estimated 10–16 million fish returning annually.
Steelhead and other anadromous fish were so abundant in the upper reaches of the Deschutes Basin in the early 1800s that Peter Skene Ogden observed fish weirs (instream structures used for harvesting fish) constructed by indigenous communities on the upper Crooked River, just below the confluence of the river’s mainstem with its North Fork — over 30 miles to the southeast of modern-day Prineville.
Prior to the 1900s, Deschutes steelhead had unimpeded access to hundreds of miles of rivers, streams, and tributaries throughout the Basin. Today only 102 miles of the Deschutes Basin tributaries below the Pelton Regulating Dam near Warm Springs are freely accessible to anadromous fish like steelhead.
Before dams and irrigation withdrawals created numerous artificial barriers to passage, steelhead trusted the Deschutes Basin’s robust network of waterways to support them throughout their various stages of life — from alevin to adult.
Required Habitat Conditions
Because the summer steelhead of the Deschutes Basin begin returning to freshwater in June and remain there for months before spawning the following spring, they depend on healthy habitat to survive the hot summer months. Stream habitat consisting of varied underwater structure (such as logs, rocks, and debris), deep pools, undercut banks, overhanging vegetation, and other complex features provides essential cool water temperatures and hiding cover.
An adult redband trout finds refuge beneath the complex structure of this freshwater stream. Photo: Jonny Armstrong, Oregon State University
Steelhead eggs laid in redds require cool, clear streams with pools up to five feet deep, relatively slow-moving water, and minimal sediment. Avoiding fine sediment and stifling silt is essential for incubating eggs that constantly need access to well-oxygenated water between 8 and 11 °C (46 and 52 °F). Hatched fry prefer shallower depths and rely on habitat with overhanging vegetation if shallow water is sparse. As the juvenile steelhead grow, they become more capable of thriving in a wider range of water velocities, different streambed compositions, and various water depths, allowing them to take advantage of greater opportunities to feed, hide, and grow.
In short, natural seasonal flows and associated water temperatures play a major role in dictating the development and ultimate survival of juvenile steelhead as they endeavor to grow in the face of myriad threats.
Sitting in a shady spot along the river, Alysia impressed upon us that “it’s really important for the Deschutes to have cold, clean water so these fish come back to the tributaries they were fry in once upon a time for our future generations.”
“Steelhead, salmon, bull trout — all those species need cold, clean water. And without it, they suffer,” added Elke.
Fish On 🎣
A clear example of why the Deschutes Basin’s native subspecies of O. mykiss is known as the redband trout.
As our afternoon with Alysia and Elke rolled on, lines were tight and nets were eventually full of trout. LandWatch Board Member Mark Kelley landed a beautiful redband, and Wild Lands & Water Program Director Jeremy Austin somehow managed to catch three.
Still, though, I had yet to coax another bite.
Hoping to remedy this, Elke guided me to a rocky promenade adjacent to a deep pool and had me cast from there. The dry fly was quickly pulled under by the churning current before, suddenly, the line pulled tight and the rod tip bent toward my sub-surface rival. Fish on.
A moment later, an unmistakable red flash from beneath the surface indicated it was a feisty redband. After several minutes of carefully negotiating the swift current and steering my formidable contender away from underwater rocks and hiding spots that threatened to snap the line, I managed to bring it close enough for Alysia to net.
I looked down at the vibrant hues and ornate speckled markings adorning this magnificent redband resting in my net. Importantly, it was clearly larger and more beautiful than any of Jeremy’s catches.
As I quickly prepared to release this glorious specimen of O. mykiss’s resident form, I considered the steelhead that would soon be arriving back to the Deschutes Basin — some of them may swim upstream past this very spot en route to Shitike Creek, the last freely accessible tributary of the Lower Deschutes below the Pelton Round Butte dams.
“I’ve been fishing this river since I was seven years old – almost 48 years straight. So I’ve seen a lot in this river that most haven’t seen. In our Native way, if we’re taking something from the river, we always have to give back to it. It’s a sacrifice, and it’s a spiritual thing that we take to our hearts — and we mean it very seriously. ”
“It’s about what we’re leaving behind for our children, for our grandchildren, and their grandchildren. I think that steelhead are really, really important and significant for their future.”
Photo: Ryan Hagerty / USFWS
Stay tuned for more steelhead tales…
We are excited to take you on an in-depth exploration of the current state of the Deschutes Basin steelhead. We’ll dive deeper into anthropogenic changes to the natural hydrology of the Basin over the past century, the modern wildlife and resource management frameworks that impact steelhead and other fisheries, and highlight opportunities to improve habitat and make meaningful progress toward species recovery that will determine the future of steelhead in the Deschutes Basin.
Special thanks to Alysia and Elke of Littleleaf Guides for generously sharing their perspective on steelhead and other fish species that rely on healthy habitat in the Deschutes Basin. We had an excellent time, and their expert guiding skills allowed all three of us to successfully land beautiful Deschutes redbands.
If you want to get up close and personal with this amazing fish, check them out at litteleafguides.com
Board Member Mark Kelly and Alysia Littleleaf showcase a freshly-netted redband.
Wild Lands & Water Program Director Jeremy Austin with his second catch of the day.
